voprecotestВопросы экономикиVoprosy Ekonomiki0042-8736Voprosy Ekonomiki, NP10.32609/0042-8736-2025-8-121-146voprecotest-5420Research ArticleЭКОНОМИКА ТРУДА И СОЦИАЛЬНОЙ СФЕРЫLABOR AND SOCIAL ECONOMICSСоциально-экономическое неравенство и экономический рост: оценка гипотезы Кузнеца методом XGBoostSocio-economic inequality and economic growth: Assessing the Kuznets hypothesis using gradient boostinghttps://orcid.org/0000-0002-2829-9900ДорофеевМ. Л.DorofeevM. L.

Дорофеев Михаил Львович - к. э. н., доцент кафедры общественных финансов финансового факультета Финуниверситета.

Москва

Mikhail L. Dorofeev

Moscow

dorofeevml@yandex.ruФинансовый университет при Правительстве РФРоссияFinancial University under the Government of the Russian FederationRussian Federation20251408202508121146Copyright © Voprosy Ekonomiki, NP, 20252025Voprosy Ekonomiki, NPVoprosy Ekonomiki, NPhttps://www.vopreco.ru/jour/about/submissions#copyrightNoticehttps://www.vopreco.ru/jour/article/view/5420

П

Проблема связи между социально-экономическим неравенством (СЭН) и экономическим ростом остается актуальной в условиях глобальной неопределенности и усиления роли государственного финансового регулирования (ГФР). Актуальность исследования обусловлена необходимостью уточнить характер этой связи для разработки эффективных мер ГФР, особенно в контексте российских национальных целей, включающих снижение коэффициента Джини к 2030 и 2036 гг. Цель исследования — определить влияние уровня СЭН на динамику экономического роста с акцентом на проверку гипотезы Кузнеца о нелинейной зависимости. Основные задачи исследования включали систематизацию теоретических и эмпирических подходов, подробный анализ каналов влияния СЭН на темпы экономического роста для разработки эконометрической модели и проверку гипотезы о нелинейности связи между исследуемыми показателями. Методологической основой стал метод градиентного бустинга, примененный к панельным данным 175 стран за 2000—2022 гг. Результаты подтвердили перевернутую U-образную зависимость темпов экономического роста от коэффициента Джини для посленалоговых доходов, определив оптимальный диапазон этого коэффициента (0,35—0,65) для максимальных темпов экономического роста, а также Г-образную зависимость, указывающую на целесообразность смягчения налоговой нагрузки в странах с низким уровнем СЭН. Выводы подчеркивают ограниченную универсальность гипотезы Кузнеца и обоснованность дифференцированного подхода к ГФР СЭН, необходимость усилить перераспределение доходов в странах с низкими подушевыми доходами и сократить избыточную фискальную нагрузку в развитых экономиках с низким уровнем СЭН. Также предложена теоретическая спиралевидная модель долгосрочной зависимости динамики экономического роста от уровня СЭН, учитывающая долгосрочные технологические циклы. Результаты имеют практическое значение для оптимизации ГФР в России.

The issue of the relationship between socio-economic inequality (SEI) and economic growth remains relevant amid global uncertainty and the growing role of state financial regulation (SFR). The study’s relevance stems from the need to clarify the nature of these relationships to develop effective SFR measures, particularly in the context of Russia’s national goals, which include reducing the Gini coefficient by 2030 and 2036. The research aims to refine the impact of SEI levels on economic growth dynamics, with a focus on testing Simon Kuznets’ hypothesis of a nonlinear relationship. The main objectives included systematizing theoretical and empirical approaches, conducting a detailed analysis of SEI influence channels on economic growth rates to develop an econometric model, and verifying the hypothesis of nonlinear relationships between the studied indicators. The methodological foundation relied on the gradient boosting method, applied to panel data from 175 countries over the 2000—2022 period. Results confirmed an inverted U-shaped relationship between economic growth rates and the Gini coefficient for post-tax income, identifying an optimal Gini range (0.35—0.65) for maximum economic growth rates, as well as a G-shaped relationship, suggesting the need to reduce tax burdens in countries with low SEI levels. Conclusions highlight the limited universality of the Kuznets hypothesis and the necessity for a differentiated approach to SFR of SEI. Key recommendations include enhancing income redistribution in countries with low per capita incomes and reducing excessive fiscal burdens in developed economies with low SEI. A theoretical spiral model of the long-term relationship between economic growth dynamics and SEI, accounting for long-term technological cycles, is also proposed. The results hold practical significance for optimizing SFR in Russia.

социально-экономическое неравенствоэкономический ростгипотеза Кузнецагосударственное финансовое регулированиекоэффициент Джиниградиентный бустингXGBoostsocio-economic inequalityeconomic growthKuznets hypothesisstate financial regulationGini coefficientgradient boostingXGBoostСтатья подготовлена по результатам исследований, выполненных за счет бюджетных средств по государственному заданию ФинуниверситетаReferencesВаршавский А. Е. (2019). Чрезмерное неравенство доходов — проблемы и угрозы для России // Социологические исследования. № 8. С. 52—61. https://doi.org/10.31857/S013216250006136-2Varshavskiy A. E. (2019). Excessive income inequality — Problems and threats for Russia. Sotsiologicheskie Issledovaniya, No. 8, pp. 52—61. (In Russian). https://doi.org/10.31857/S013216250006136-2Джомо К. С., Попов В. В. (2016). Долгосрочные тенденции в распределении доходов // Журнал Новой экономической ассоциации. № 3. С. 146—160. https://doi.org/10.31737/2221-2264-2016-31-3-6Jomo K. S., Popov V. V. (2016). Long-term trends in income distribution. Journal of the New Economic Association, No. 3, pp. 146—160. (In Russian). https://doi.org/10.31737/2221-2264-2016-31-3-6Дорофеев М. Л. (2024a). Взаимосвязи между доходным неравенством и экономическим ростом в регионах России: новые результаты на основе теста казуальности Грейнджера // E-Management. Т. 7, № 1. С. 15—27. https://doi.org/10.26425/2658-3445-2024-7-1-15-27Dorofeev M.L. (2024a). Correlation between income inequality and economic growth in Russian regions: New results based on the Granger causality test. E-Management, Vol. 7, No. 1. pp. 15—27. (In Russian). https://doi.org/10.26425/2658-3445-2024-7-1-15-27Дорофеев М. Л. (2024b). Фискальные мультипликаторы и уровень доходного неравенства (на примере стран ОЭСР, России и Китая) // Вопросы экономики. № 4. С. 111—126. https://doi.org/10.32609/0042-8736-2024-4-111-126Dorofeev M. L. (2024b). Fiscal multipliers and income inequality (The case of OECD countries, Russia and China). Voprosy Ekonomiki, No. 4, pp. 111—126. (In Russian). https://doi.org/10.32609/0042-8736-2024-4-111-126Имашева И. Ю., Крамин Т. В. (2022). Цифровое неравенство: модернизация кривой Кузнеца в цифровую эпоху // Russian Journal of Economics and Law. Т. 16, № 4. С. 716—727. https://doi.org/10.21202/2782-2923.2022.4.716-727Imasheva I. Y., Kramin T. V. (2022). Digital inequality: Modernization of Kuznets curve in the digital era. Russian Journal of Economics and Law, Vol. 16, No. 4, pp. 716—727. (In Russian). https://doi.org/10.21202/2782-2923.2022.4.716-727Капелюшников Р. И. (2017). Неравенство: как не примитивизировать проблему // Вопросы экономики. № 4. С. 117—139. https://doi.org/10.32609/0042-8736-2017-4-117-139Kapeliushnikov R. I. (2017). Inequality: How not to primitivize the problem. Voprosy Ekonomiki, No. 4, pp. 117—139. (In Russian). https://doi.org/10.32609/0042-8736-2017-4-117-139Любимов И. (2016). Неравенство и экономический рост: Теоретические аспекты зависимости. М.: РАНХиГС. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2768662Lyubimov I. (2016). Inequality and growth: Theoretical aspects of dependence. Moscow: RANEPA. (In Russian). https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2768662Малкина М. Ю. (2016). Институциональные основы неравенства доходов в современной экономике // Журнал институциональных исследований. Т. 8, № 1. С. 100—120. https://doi.org/10.17835/2076-6297.2016.8.1.100-120Malkina M. Y. (2016). Institutional framework of income inequality in modern economy. Journal of Institutional Studies, Vol. 8, No. 1, pp. 100—120. (In Russian). https://doi.org/10.17835/2076-6297.2016.8.1.100-120Шевяков А. Ю. (2011). Мифы и реалии социальной политики. М.: Институт социальноэкономических проблем народонаселения РАН.Shevyakov A. Y. (2011). Myths and realities of social policy. Moscow: Institute of Socio-Economic Studies of Population, RAS. (In Russian).Acheampong A. O., Adebayo T. S., Dzator J., Koomson I. (2023). Income inequality and economic growth in BRICS: Insights from non-parametric techniques. Journal of Economic Inequality, Vol. 21, pp. 619—640. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10888-023-09567-9Acheampong A. O., Adebayo T. S., Dzator J., Koomson I. (2023). Income inequality and economic growth in BRICS: Insights from non-parametric techniques. Journal of Economic Inequality, Vol. 21, pp. 619—640. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10888-023-09567-9Acemoglu D., Aghion P., Bursztyn L., Hemous D. (2012). The environment and directed technical change. American Economic Review, Vol. 102, No. 1. pp. 131—166. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.102.1.131Acemoglu D., Aghion P., Bursztyn L., Hemous D. (2012). The environment and directed technical change. American Economic Review, Vol. 102, No. 1. pp. 131—166. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.102.1.131Acemoglu D., Restrepo P. (2020). Robots and jobs: Еvidence from US labor markets. Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 128, No. 6, pp. 2188—2244. https://doi.org/10.1086/705716Acemoglu D., Restrepo P. (2020). Robots and jobs: Еvidence from US labor markets. Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 128, No. 6, pp. 2188—2244. https://doi.org/10.1086/705716Aghion P., Howitt P. (1992). A model of growth through creative destruction. Econometrica, Vol. 60, No. 2, pp. 323—351. https://doi.org/10.2307/2951599Aghion P., Howitt P. (1992). A model of growth through creative destruction. Econometrica, Vol. 60, No. 2, pp. 323—351. https://doi.org/10.2307/2951599Aisen A., Veiga F. J. (2013). How does political instability affect economic growth? European Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 29, pp. 151—167. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpoleco.2012.11.001Aisen A., Veiga F. J. (2013). How does political instability affect economic growth? European Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 29, pp. 151—167. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpoleco.2012.11.001Alesina A., Rodrik D. (1994). Distributive politics and economic growth. Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 109, No. 2, pp. 465—490. https://doi.org/10.2307/2118470Alesina A., Rodrik D. (1994). Distributive politics and economic growth. Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 109, No. 2, pp. 465—490. https://doi.org/10.2307/2118470Autor D., Dorn D., Katz L. F., Patterson C., Van Reenen J. (2020). The fall of the labor share and the rise of superstar firms. Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 135, No. 2, pp. 645—709. https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjaa004Autor D., Dorn D., Katz L. F., Patterson C., Van Reenen J. (2020). The fall of the labor share and the rise of superstar firms. Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 135, No. 2, pp. 645—709. https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjaa004Barro R. J. (1991). Economic growth in a cross section of countries. Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 106, No. 2, pp. 407—443. https://doi.org/10.2307/2937943Barro R. J. (1991). Economic growth in a cross section of countries. Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 106, No. 2, pp. 407—443. https://doi.org/10.2307/2937943Baselgia E., Foellmi R. (2023). Inequality and growth. In: K. F. Zimmermann (ed.). Handbook of labor, human resources and population economics. Cham: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-57365-6_332-2Baselgia E., Foellmi R. (2023). Inequality and growth. In: K. F. Zimmermann (ed.). Handbook of labor, human resources and population economics. Cham: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-57365-6_332-2Baumol W. J. (1990). Entrepreneurship: Рroductive, unproductive, and destructive. Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 98, No. 5, part 1, pp. 893—921. https://doi.org/10.1086/261712Baumol W. J. (1990). Entrepreneurship: Рroductive, unproductive, and destructive. Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 98, No. 5, part 1, pp. 893—921. https://doi.org/10.1086/261712Beck T., Demirgüç-Kunt A., Levine R. (2007). Finance, inequality and the poor. Journal of Economic Growth, Vol. 12, No. 1, pp. 27—49. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10887007-9010-6Beck T., Demirgüç-Kunt A., Levine R. (2007). Finance, inequality and the poor. Journal of Economic Growth, Vol. 12, No. 1, pp. 27—49. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10887007-9010-6Becker G. S. (1964). Human capital: A theoretical and empirical analysis. New York: Columbia University Press.Becker G. S. (1964). Human capital: A theoretical and empirical analysis. New York: Columbia University Press.Becker G. S., Lewis H. G. (1973). On the interaction between the quantity and quality of children. Journal of Political Economy. Vol. 81, No. 2, part 2, pp. S279—S288. https://doi.org/10.1086/260166Becker G. S., Lewis H. G. (1973). On the interaction between the quantity and quality of children. Journal of Political Economy. Vol. 81, No. 2, part 2, pp. S279—S288. https://doi.org/10.1086/260166Bénabou R. (1996). Inequality and growth. NBER Working Paper, No. 5658. https://doi.org/10.3386/w5658Bénabou R. (1996). Inequality and growth. NBER Working Paper, No. 5658. https://doi.org/10.3386/w5658Bertola G. (1993). Factor shares and savings in endogenous growth. American Economic Review, Vol. 83, No. 5, pp. 1184—1198.Bertola G. (1993). Factor shares and savings in endogenous growth. American Economic Review, Vol. 83, No. 5, pp. 1184—1198.Bourguignon F. (2004). The poverty-growth-inequality triangle. New Delhi: Indian Council for Research on International Economic Relations.Bourguignon F. (2004). The poverty-growth-inequality triangle. New Delhi: Indian Council for Research on International Economic Relations.Carroll C.D. (2000). Why do the rich save so much? In: J. B. Slemrod (ed.). Does Atlas shrug? The economic consequences of taxing the rich. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, pp. 465—484.Carroll C.D. (2000). Why do the rich save so much? In: J. B. Slemrod (ed.). Does Atlas shrug? The economic consequences of taxing the rich. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, pp. 465—484.Case A., Deaton A. (2020). Deaths of despair and the future of capitalism. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Case A., Deaton A. (2020). Deaths of despair and the future of capitalism. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Capone C., Talgat S., Hazir O., Abdrasheva K., Kozhakhmetova A. (2024). Artificial intelligence models for predicting budget expenditures. Eurasian Journal of Economic and Business Studies, Vol. 68, No. 1, pp. 32—43. https://doi.org/10.47703/ejebs.v68i1.331Capone C., Talgat S., Hazir O., Abdrasheva K., Kozhakhmetova A. (2024). Artificial intelligence models for predicting budget expenditures. Eurasian Journal of Economic and Business Studies, Vol. 68, No. 1, pp. 32—43. https://doi.org/10.47703/ejebs.v68i1.331Checchi D., Ichino A., Rustichini A. (1999). More equal but less mobile? Education financing and intergenerational mobility in Italy and in the US. Journal of Public Economics, Vol. 74, No. 3, pp. 351—393. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0047-2727(99)00036-7Checchi D., Ichino A., Rustichini A. (1999). More equal but less mobile? Education financing and intergenerational mobility in Italy and in the US. Journal of Public Economics, Vol. 74, No. 3, pp. 351—393. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0047-2727(99)00036-7Cingano F. (2014). Trends in income inequality and its impact on economic growth. OECD Social, Employment and Migration Working Papers, No. 163. https://doi.org/10.1787/5jxrjncwxv6j-enCingano F. (2014). Trends in income inequality and its impact on economic growth. OECD Social, Employment and Migration Working Papers, No. 163. https://doi.org/10.1787/5jxrjncwxv6j-enCuervo-Cazurra A. (2014). Transparency and corruption. In: J. Forssbæck, L. Oxelheim (eds.). The Oxford handbook of economic and institutional transparency. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 323—344. https://doi.org/10.1093/ox-fordhb/9780199917693.013.0015Cuervo-Cazurra A. (2014). Transparency and corruption. In: J. Forssbæck, L. Oxelheim (eds.). The Oxford handbook of economic and institutional transparency. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 323—344. https://doi.org/10.1093/ox-fordhb/9780199917693.013.0015Cutler D. M., Lleras-Muney A. (2006). Education and health: Evaluating theories and evidence. NBER Working Paper, No. 12352. https://doi.org/10.3386/w12352Cutler D. M., Lleras-Muney A. (2006). Education and health: Evaluating theories and evidence. NBER Working Paper, No. 12352. https://doi.org/10.3386/w12352Dinda S. (2004). Environmental Kuznets curve hypothesis: А survey. Ecological Economics, Vol. 49, No. 4, pp. 431—455. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2004.02.011Dinda S. (2004). Environmental Kuznets curve hypothesis: А survey. Ecological Economics, Vol. 49, No. 4, pp. 431—455. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2004.02.011Doepke M., Tertilt M. (2018). Women’s empowerment, the gender gap in desired fertility, and fertility outcomes in developing countries. AEA Papers and Proceedings, Vol. 108, pp. 358—362. https://doi.org/10.1257/pandp.20181085Doepke M., Tertilt M. (2018). Women’s empowerment, the gender gap in desired fertility, and fertility outcomes in developing countries. AEA Papers and Proceedings, Vol. 108, pp. 358—362. https://doi.org/10.1257/pandp.20181085Dorofeev M. L. (2022). Interrelations between income inequality and sustainable economic growth: Contradictions of empirical research and new results. Economies, Vol. 10, No. 2, article 44. https://doi.org/10.3390/economies10020044Dorofeev M. L. (2022). Interrelations between income inequality and sustainable economic growth: Contradictions of empirical research and new results. Economies, Vol. 10, No. 2, article 44. https://doi.org/10.3390/economies10020044Eastin J., Prakash A. (2013). Economic development and gender equality: Is there a gender Kuznets curve? World Politics, Vol. 65, No. 1, pp. 156—186. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0043887112000275Eastin J., Prakash A. (2013). Economic development and gender equality: Is there a gender Kuznets curve? World Politics, Vol. 65, No. 1, pp. 156—186. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0043887112000275Fershtman C., Murphy K., Weiss M. (1996). Social status, education, and growth. Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 104, No. 1, pp. 108—132. http://doi.org/10.1086/262019Fershtman C., Murphy K., Weiss M. (1996). Social status, education, and growth. Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 104, No. 1, pp. 108—132. http://doi.org/10.1086/262019Frumina S. V., Yakushova E. S., Azimzadeh A. (2024). Impact of COVID-19 pandemic on insurance demand in Russia: A comparative analysis with global markets. International Journal of Sustainable Development and Planning, Vol. 19, No. 9, pp. 3289—3298. https://doi.org/10.18280/ijsdp.190902Frumina S. V., Yakushova E. S., Azimzadeh A. (2024). Impact of COVID-19 pandemic on insurance demand in Russia: A comparative analysis with global markets. International Journal of Sustainable Development and Planning, Vol. 19, No. 9, pp. 3289—3298. https://doi.org/10.18280/ijsdp.190902Galor O., Zeira J. (1993). Income distribution and macroeconomics. Review of Economic Studies, Vol. 60, No. 1, pp. 35—52. https://doi.org/10.2307/2297811Galor O., Zeira J. (1993). Income distribution and macroeconomics. Review of Economic Studies, Vol. 60, No. 1, pp. 35—52. https://doi.org/10.2307/2297811Halter D., Oechslin M., Zweimüller J. (2014). Inequality and growth: Тhe neglected time dimension. Journal of Economic Growth, Vol. 19, pp. 81—104. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10887-013-9099-8Halter D., Oechslin M., Zweimüller J. (2014). Inequality and growth: Тhe neglected time dimension. Journal of Economic Growth, Vol. 19, pp. 81—104. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10887-013-9099-8Hanushek E. A., Woessmann L. (2008). The role of cognitive skills in economic development. Journal of Economic Literature, Vol. 46, No. 3, pp. 607—668. https://doi.org/10.1257/jel.46.3.607Hanushek E. A., Woessmann L. (2008). The role of cognitive skills in economic development. Journal of Economic Literature, Vol. 46, No. 3, pp. 607—668. https://doi.org/10.1257/jel.46.3.607Hassler J., Rodríguez Mora J., Zeira J. (2007). Inequality and mobility. Journal of Economic Growth, Vol. 12, No. 3, pp. 235—259. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10887-007-9019-xHassler J., Rodríguez Mora J., Zeira J. (2007). Inequality and mobility. Journal of Economic Growth, Vol. 12, No. 3, pp. 235—259. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10887-007-9019-xHeckman J. J. (2008). Schools, skills, and synapses. Economic Inquiry, Vol. 46, No. 3, pp. 289—324. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1465-7295.2008.00163.xHeckman J. J. (2008). Schools, skills, and synapses. Economic Inquiry, Vol. 46, No. 3, pp. 289—324. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1465-7295.2008.00163.xHeckman J. J. (2020). The economics of human development. Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 128, No. 6, pp. 2191—2223. https://doi.org/10.1086/707606 Kaldor N. (1955). Alternative theories of distribution. Review of Economic Studies, Vol. 23, No. 2, pp. 83—100. https://doi.org/10.2307/2296298Heckman J. J. (2020). The economics of human development. Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 128, No. 6, pp. 2191—2223. https://doi.org/10.1086/707606 Kaldor N. (1955). Alternative theories of distribution. Review of Economic Studies, Vol. 23, No. 2, pp. 83—100. https://doi.org/10.2307/2296298Kaldor N. (1957). A model of economic growth. Economic Journal, Vol. 67, No. 268, pp. 591—624. https://doi.org/10.2307/2227704Kaldor N. (1957). A model of economic growth. Economic Journal, Vol. 67, No. 268, pp. 591—624. https://doi.org/10.2307/2227704Kuznets S. (1955). Economic growth and income inequality. American Economic Review, Vol. 45, No. 1, pp. 1—28.Kuznets S. (1955). Economic growth and income inequality. American Economic Review, Vol. 45, No. 1, pp. 1—28.Lazear E. P., Rosen S. (1981). Rank-order tournaments as optimum labor contracts. Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 89, No. 5, pp. 841—864. https://doi.org/10.1086/261010Lazear E. P., Rosen S. (1981). Rank-order tournaments as optimum labor contracts. Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 89, No. 5, pp. 841—864. https://doi.org/10.1086/261010Liebig S. (2012). Review of Wilkinson R., Pickett K. (2009). The spirit level. Why more equal societies almost always do better. Social Justice Research, Vol. 25, No. 2, pp. 214—217. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11211-012-0148-9Liebig S. (2012). Review of Wilkinson R., Pickett K. (2009). The spirit level. Why more equal societies almost always do better. Social Justice Research, Vol. 25, No. 2, pp. 214—217. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11211-012-0148-9Luo W. (2023). Inequality and economic growth in the twenty-first century. In: Inequality, demography and fiscal policy. Singapore: Springer Nature, pp. 133—160. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0518-8_6Luo W. (2023). Inequality and economic growth in the twenty-first century. In: Inequality, demography and fiscal policy. Singapore: Springer Nature, pp. 133—160. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0518-8_6Méndez-Astudillo J. (2024). The impact of comorbidities and economic inequality on COVID-19 mortality in Mexico: А machine learning approach. Frontiers in Big Data, Vol. 7, artilce 1298029. https://doi.org/10.3389/fdata.2024.1298029Méndez-Astudillo J. (2024). The impact of comorbidities and economic inequality on COVID-19 mortality in Mexico: А machine learning approach. Frontiers in Big Data, Vol. 7, artilce 1298029. https://doi.org/10.3389/fdata.2024.1298029Michálek A., Výboštok J. (2018). Economic growth, inequality and poverty in the EU. Social Indicators Research, Vol. 141, No. 2, pp. 611—630. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-018-1858-7Michálek A., Výboštok J. (2018). Economic growth, inequality and poverty in the EU. Social Indicators Research, Vol. 141, No. 2, pp. 611—630. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-018-1858-7Mirrlees J. (1971). An exploration in the theory of optimum income taxation. Review of Economic Studies, Vol. 38, No. 2, pp. 175—208. https://doi.org/10.2307/2296381Mirrlees J. (1971). An exploration in the theory of optimum income taxation. Review of Economic Studies, Vol. 38, No. 2, pp. 175—208. https://doi.org/10.2307/2296381Murphy K. M., Shleifer A., Vishny R. W. (1991). The allocation of talent: Implications for growth. Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 106, No. 2, pp. 503—530. https://doi.org/10.2307/2937945Murphy K. M., Shleifer A., Vishny R. W. (1991). The allocation of talent: Implications for growth. Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 106, No. 2, pp. 503—530. https://doi.org/10.2307/2937945Nandha G. J., Muthukaruppasamy S., Thomas S. A., Arul D. A. I., Jose A. A. (2024). Precision poverty evaluation: Leveraging generalized linear models and XG boost algorithms. CRC Press. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781003519010-13Nandha G. J., Muthukaruppasamy S., Thomas S. A., Arul D. A. I., Jose A. A. (2024). Precision poverty evaluation: Leveraging generalized linear models and XG boost algorithms. CRC Press. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781003519010-13Neves P. C., Tavares Silva S. M. (2014). Inequality and growth: Uncovering the main conclusions from the empirics. Journal of Development Studies, Vol. 50, No. 1, pp. 1—21. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2013.841885Neves P. C., Tavares Silva S. M. (2014). Inequality and growth: Uncovering the main conclusions from the empirics. Journal of Development Studies, Vol. 50, No. 1, pp. 1—21. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2013.841885Ostry J. D., Berg A., Tsangarides C. G. (2014). Redistribution, inequality, and growth. IMF Staff Discussion Note, No. 14/02. https://doi.org/10.5089/9781484352076.006Ostry J. D., Berg A., Tsangarides C. G. (2014). Redistribution, inequality, and growth. IMF Staff Discussion Note, No. 14/02. https://doi.org/10.5089/9781484352076.006Perotti R. (1996). Growth, income distribution, and democracy: What the data say. Journal of Economic Growth, Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 149—187. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00138861Perotti R. (1996). Growth, income distribution, and democracy: What the data say. Journal of Economic Growth, Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 149—187. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00138861Persson T., Tabellini G. (1994). Is inequality harmful for growth? American Economic Review, Vol. 84, No. 3, pp. 600—621.Persson T., Tabellini G. (1994). Is inequality harmful for growth? American Economic Review, Vol. 84, No. 3, pp. 600—621.Piketty T. (2014). Capital in the twenty-first century. Cambridge, MA and London: Harvard University Press. https://doi.org/10.4159/9780674369542Piketty T. (2014). Capital in the twenty-first century. Cambridge, MA and London: Harvard University Press. https://doi.org/10.4159/9780674369542Piketty T. (2019). Capital and ideology. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Piketty T. (2019). Capital and ideology. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Pradhan N., Agrawal A. (2025). Mapping fine-scale socioeconomic inequality using machine learning and remotely sensed data. PNAS Nexus, Vol. 4, No. 2, article pgaf040. https://doi.org/10.1093/pnasnexus/pgaf040Pradhan N., Agrawal A. (2025). Mapping fine-scale socioeconomic inequality using machine learning and remotely sensed data. PNAS Nexus, Vol. 4, No. 2, article pgaf040. https://doi.org/10.1093/pnasnexus/pgaf040Ria N., Gupta Y., Saxena V., Begwani S., Vijarania M., Gupta S. (2024). Evaluating economic policies: Anticipating GDP trends and government spending. 2024 4th International Conference on Technological Advancements in Computational Sciences (ICTACS), pp. 1071—1076. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICTACS62700.2024.10840912Ria N., Gupta Y., Saxena V., Begwani S., Vijarania M., Gupta S. (2024). Evaluating economic policies: Anticipating GDP trends and government spending. 2024 4th International Conference on Technological Advancements in Computational Sciences (ICTACS), pp. 1071—1076. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICTACS62700.2024.10840912Romer P. M. (1990). Endogenous technological change. Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 98, No. 5, Part 2, pp. S71—S102. https://doi.org/10.1086/261725Romer P. M. (1990). Endogenous technological change. Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 98, No. 5, Part 2, pp. S71—S102. https://doi.org/10.1086/261725Schumpeter J. A. (1934). The theory of economic development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Schumpeter J. A. (1934). The theory of economic development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Souissi B., Tiba S. (2024). Coping with the tale of natural resources and environmental inequality: Аn application of machine learning tools. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, Vol. 31, No. 40, pp. 52841—52854. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-024-34737-1Souissi B., Tiba S. (2024). Coping with the tale of natural resources and environmental inequality: Аn application of machine learning tools. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, Vol. 31, No. 40, pp. 52841—52854. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-024-34737-1Stiglitz J. E. (2012). The price of inequality: Нow today’s divided society endangers our future. New York: W.W. Norton & Company.Stiglitz J. E. (2012). The price of inequality: Нow today’s divided society endangers our future. New York: W.W. Norton & Company.Tridico P., Paternesi Meloni W. (2018). Economic growth, welfare models and inequality in the context of globalization. Economic and Labour Relations Review, Vol. 29, No. 1, pp. 118—139. https://doi.org/10.1177/1035304618758941Tridico P., Paternesi Meloni W. (2018). Economic growth, welfare models and inequality in the context of globalization. Economic and Labour Relations Review, Vol. 29, No. 1, pp. 118—139. https://doi.org/10.1177/1035304618758941Yang Y., Xu X., Ge J., Xu Y. (2024). Machine learning for economic forecasting: An application to China’s GDP growth. arXiv:2407.03595. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2407.03595Yang Y., Xu X., Ge J., Xu Y. (2024). Machine learning for economic forecasting: An application to China’s GDP growth. arXiv:2407.03595. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2407.03595Voitchovsky S. (2005). Does the profile of income inequality matter for economic growth? Journal of Economic Growth, Vol. 10, pp. 273—296. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10887-005-3535-3Voitchovsky S. (2005). Does the profile of income inequality matter for economic growth? Journal of Economic Growth, Vol. 10, pp. 273—296. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10887-005-3535-3Wiedmann T., Lenzen M., Keyßer L., Steinberger J. (2020). Scientists’ warning on affluence. Nature Communications, Vol. 11, article 3107. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-16941-yWiedmann T., Lenzen M., Keyßer L., Steinberger J. (2020). Scientists’ warning on affluence. Nature Communications, Vol. 11, article 3107. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-16941-yWorld Bank (2006). World development report 2006: Equity and development. New York: Oxford University Press.World Bank (2006). World development report 2006: Equity and development. New York: Oxford University Press.Zhang P. (2022) Happiness inequality has a Kuznets-style relation with economic growth in China. Scientific Reports, Vol. 12, article 15712. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-19881-3Zhang P. (2022) Happiness inequality has a Kuznets-style relation with economic growth in China. Scientific Reports, Vol. 12, article 15712. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-19881-3Zhang J., Yuan J., Mahmoudi A., Ji W., Fang Q. (2023). A data-driven framework for conceptual cost estimation of infrastructure projects using XGBoost and Bayesian optimization. Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering, Vol. 24, No. 2. https://doi.org/10.1080/13467581.2023.2294871Zhang J., Yuan J., Mahmoudi A., Ji W., Fang Q. (2023). A data-driven framework for conceptual cost estimation of infrastructure projects using XGBoost and Bayesian optimization. Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering, Vol. 24, No. 2. https://doi.org/10.1080/13467581.2023.2294871

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest present.